Chapter VIII:

Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory Versus
Accepted Strong Nuclear Force
Overcoming Proton Electrostatic Repulsion

The largest stumbling block to proving that the “Strong Nuclear Force” and Gravity are one and the same force is overcoming the Electrostatic Repulsion of the protons in the nucleus.  In Chapter III, a calculation was performed, based upon Classical Physics, which, determined the Electrostatic Repulsion of the protons is on the order of 3×10³⁵ greater than their Gravitational Attraction.  The current paradigm of Physics states there are two separate and distinct nuclear forces:

1. The “Strong Nuclear Force” is the force that holds the protons and neutrons in the nucleus together.  This force is a very strong, short ranged force that overcomes the “Electrostatic Repulsion Force” of the positive charged protons tending to break the nucleus apart.



2. The “Weak Nuclear Force” is the “Force of Gravity.”

If the “Strong Nuclear Force” and Gravity are the same force, then there is only one nuclear force.  The “Strong Nuclear Force” and the “Weak Nuclear Force” are one and the same force.  Quantum Mechanics provides the means for Gravity to overcome the Electrostatic Repulsion Force and be able to bind a nucleus filled with positively charged protons together.  Planck's Constant, “h,” is related to energy and is a constant in the Schrodinger Wave Equation for both the Kinetic Energy portion and the Total Energy portion of the equation.

Schrodinger Wave Equation:

NOTE:   “h-bar” equals h/2π

Planck’s Constant is also related to the energy of a quantum of light, a photon.  Millikan performed several experiments that demonstrated that the frequency of light, which is directly proportional to the light’s energy, determined whether or not the photoelectric effect took place.  Millikan determined that the absorption of energy by the electron was a function of the frequency of light, not a function of the intensity of the light.  The observations of the photoelectric effect which led to the development of the concept of light being quanta of energy will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter X.  The energy of a photon, a quantum of light, is defined by the following equations:

E  =  hν  =  hc/λ

c  =  λν

E represents energy, h represents Planck’s constant, ν represents the frequency of the light in Hertz (Hz or cycles per second), λ represents the wavelength of the light, and c represents the speed of light in a vacuum.  If the energy of a photon, a quantum of light energy, is known, then its wavelength can be determined.  As previously mentioned, light has both an electric field and a magnetic field associated with its propagation through space.  It would be expected that wavelengths of the Electric Fields associated with charged particles with a given Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy would have wavelengths on the same order of magnitude as the wavelengths of equivalent energy photons.  Photons of visible light have a range of wavelengths from 4000 Angstroms to 7000 Angstroms and energies on the order of electron-volts (eV).  An eV is the amount of energy required to move one electron, with a charge of 1.6022×10^-19 Coulomb, through a one volt potential.  Recall that the diameter of the atom is on the order of 1 Angstrom, which is equal to 1×10^-10 meter.  The atom is transparent to visible light because the wavelengths of the visible light at 4000 Angstroms to 7000 Angstroms are too large to “see” the atom.  The energy levels of the electrons orbiting the nucleus are on the order of several eVs.  Gamma rays or X-rays are also photons of light, which have energies on the order of millions of electron-volts (MeV).  Since the energy of a Gamma ray or X-ray is about a million times greater than the energy of visible light, the wavelength of the Gamma ray or X-ray will be a million times smaller than that of visible light.  Recall that energy of a photon is directly proportional to the frequency of the photon, therefore, inversely proportional to the wavelength.  The wavelengths of Gamma rays or X-rays are on the order of 1×10^-2  Angstrom to 1×10^-3 Angstrom equal to 1×10^-12 meter to 1×10^-13 meter.  The diameter of the nucleus varies from 1×10^-15 meter to 1×10^-14 meter, therefore, the nucleus is transparent to the Gamma rays and X-rays just as the atom is transparent to visible light.  The energy levels of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus are on the order of MeVs.  From this analysis, the Nuclear Electric Fields associated with the protons should have wavelengths on the order of the wavelengths of the Gamma rays discussed above, which, are significantly larger than the diameter of the nucleus of the atom.  Therefore, when two protons or a proton and a (positively charged) nucleus are in close proximity, they no longer repel each other because each are well within the wavelengths of the electric fields produced by either the two protons or the proton and the nucleus.  The Electrostatic Repulsion Force becomes transparent or invisible, that is, the repulsive force between like charged protons disappears.  This analysis makes perfect sense if one also looks at what happens to the electrons orbiting the nucleus.  The Nuclear Electric Field Potential for the attraction of the electrons to the nucleus is exactly the same potential as for the repulsion of the protons.  The equation for the Nuclear Electric Field Potential is provided below:

Classical Physics indicates that the electrons should spiral into the nucleus as r approaches zero.  However, the solutions to the Schrodinger Wave Equation for the Nuclear Electric Field Potential indicate that the probability of the electron being very near the nucleus is near zero.  The Schrodinger Wave Equation for the Nuclear Electric Field Potential is provided below:

The electron won’t spiral into the nucleus because the electron no longer “sees” an attractive force to the nucleus once it approaches a distance from the nucleus significantly smaller than the Nuclear Electric Field wavelength.  “What is good for the goose is good for the gander” so to speak.  The Nuclear Electric Field that attracts the electrons is no different than the Nuclear Electric Field that repels the protons.  In similar manner to the electron, when a proton approaches the nucleus to within a distance that is significantly smaller than the Nuclear Electric Field wavelength, it will no longer “see” the “Electrostatic Repulsion Force” from the nucleus.  Therefore, the “Electrostatic Repulsion Force” in the near vicinity of the nucleus can be ignored because it does not physically exist by Quantum Mechanics.  The Nuclear Electric Field wavelength is proportional to the number of protons in the nucleus and is nominally on the order of 10 times to nearly 1,000 times the nuclear diameter.  Therefore, the much, much weaker Gravitational Attraction Force can hold the nucleus together without the Electrostatic Repulsion Force (which is on the order of 10³⁵ times stronger) from tearing the nucleus apart.  This principle also provides the explanation as to why all the known heavy elements beyond Bismuth (Element 83) are radioactive.  As the atomic number, which represents the number of protons in the nucleus, rises, the Nuclear Electric Field wavelength established by those protons in the nucleus is reduced.  As the atomic mass, which represents the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, rises, the effective diameter of the nucleus rises.  The smaller Nuclear Electric Field wavelength in tandem with a larger nuclear diameter leads to the instability of the nucleus.

Quantum Mechanics describes the “DeBroglie wavelength” of the electrons as the wavelength that determines the “mean orbital distance” of a given electron in orbit around the nucleus.  The “DeBroglie wave function,” introduced in Chapter VII, is the wave function assumed in the Schrodinger Wave Equation for electrons, protons, and neutrons.  Recall that matter has a particle and wave characteristic just as light does in accordance with Quantum Mechanics.  The DeBroglie wavelength has a direct correlation to the intensity of the Nuclear Electric Field, which is proportional to the Nuclear Electric Field wavelength established by the nucleus.  In general, the average radius of each of the electron orbitals around the nucleus, along with the associated DeBroglie wavelength of the electrons, is reduced in direct correlation to the Nuclear Electric Field wavelength as the number of protons in the nucleus rise.  The Nuclear Electric Field wavelength is directly related to the radius of the first electron energy level orbital, or “K-shell,” associated with the nucleus.  The radius of the K-shell for Uranium or a trans-Uranic element is on the order of 100 times smaller than the radius of the K-shell for the Hydrogen atom.

The explanation of the Nuclear Electric Field is grossly simplified.  I am using a “Classical Physics” approach to explain a “Quantum Mechanical” principle and am ignoring some of the more complicated issues of Quantum Mechanics and the nucleus.  This explanation does not provide the justification for the existence of radioactive isotopes of lighter elements such as Tritium (₁H³).  Likewise, it does not explain why the isotope, Boron-10 (₅B¹⁰) has such a high affinity for absorbing neutrons.  Only Quantum Mechanics can explain the radioactive properties of certain isotopes of the lighter elements and of the unusual absorption neutron cross-sections for certain element isotopes.  In general, the instability of radioactive isotopes is due to the nucleons being more “loosely bound” either because of an imbalance of neutrons to protons in the nucleus (i.e., the isotope of interest has a nuclear configuration that places that isotope outside the range of the nuclear stability curve) or of an excess of protons and neutrons in the nucleus (i.e., the heavy elements and super-heavy elements beyond Bismuth).

The Gravitational Attraction Force of the Nuclear Gravitation Field can only either be measured close to the nucleus or outside the electron cloud of a neutral atom, the atomic radius.  The much, much stronger Electrostatic Repulsion Force dominates the atomic structure at a distance from the nucleus on the order of a wavelength of the Nuclear Electric Field to the end of the electron cloud of the neutral atom.  Once outside the electron cloud of the atom, the Gravitational Attraction Force can be measured.  However, since the diameter of the atom is on the order of 100,000 times the diameter of the nucleus, that Gravitational Attraction Force is on the order of one ten-billionth (1/10,000,000,000) its intensity next to the nucleus.  The Gravitational Attraction Force doesn’t actually disappear.  What is being observed is an example of the principle of “superposition.”  When evaluating the “Strong Nuclear Force” and Electrostatic Repulsion, one must consider “superposition” when considering the forces experienced by a proton of interest relative to the nucleus of an atom of interest if the “Strong Nuclear Force” is Gravity.  “Superposition” looks at the effects of two different forces separately and looks at the net effects of both forces when the two forces are “superimposed” upon one another.  Consider the proton of interest at a distance far enough from the nucleus of an atom of interest where the effect of the “Electrostatic Repulsion” of protons becomes the dominant force.  In other words, the proton of interest is, now, at a distance equivalent to a significant fraction of the Nuclear Electric Field wavelength from the nucleus of the atom of interest.  At that distance, the “Strong Nuclear Force” (Gravity) “seems to completely disappear” when the much more dominant Electrostatic Repulsion Force takes over.  The Electrostatic Repulsion Force will remain the dominating force as the proton of interest moves outward from the nucleus of the atom of interest through the electron cloud.  Once the proton of interest is outside the electron cloud of the atom’s electrons, the electrons “neutralize” the Nuclear Electric Field.  In other words, once the proton of interest is outside the atom of interest, the Electrostatic Repulsion of the proton from the nucleus is no longer present and the residual attractive “Strong Nuclear Force” (Gravity) with its “1/r²” potential function “seems to reappear.”  The “Strong Nuclear Force” (Gravity) never really goes away.  Its field strength drops off proportional to 1/r² but is masked by the much stronger Nuclear Electric Field when that field is present.  Once outside the electron cloud, the influence of the “Strong Nuclear Force” (Gravity) on the proton of interest at that distance from the nucleus will be extremely insignificant.  The “Strong Nuclear Force” (Gravity) is very feeble because of the proton’s relatively large distance from the nucleus in comparison to the nuclear diameter.  Recall that nuclear diameters are on the order of 10^-15 meters to 10^-14 meters (10^-5 Angstroms to 10^-4 Angstroms) and atomic diameters are on the order of 10^-10 meters (1 Angstrom).  As previously mentioned, the “Strong Nuclear Force” field strength outside the electron cloud will be on the order of one ten-billionth (1/10,000,000,000) the intensity of the “Strong Nuclear Force” field intensity in the vicinity of the nucleus because the atomic radius is about 100,000 times the size of the nuclear radius.

The analysis, above, provides a solid case for Gravity overcoming the Electrostatic Repulsion Force and being the same as the “Strong Nuclear Force” binding the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus.  The wavelengths of the Nuclear Electric Fields associated with the protons is expected to be greater than 1×10^-4 Angstrom (1×10^-14 meter) which is the maximum expected diameter of any nucleus.  Consider the fusion of two Deuterium nuclei.  Current Physics assumes the “Strong Nuclear Force” is an extremely strong, very short ranged, “super-force” that is much, much, stronger than the Electrostatic Repulsion Force, binding the nucleus together by overcoming that repulsion force.  Based upon the analysis for demonstrating the equivalence of the “Strong Nuclear Force” and Gravity, the fusion of two Deuterium nuclei takes place when the two Deuterium nuclei approach each other to the point that they no longer electrostatically repel each other.  The Nuclear Electric Field Potential no longer masks the Nuclear Gravitation Field Potential and fusion of the Deuterium nuclei to form a Helium nucleus can take place because of the gravitational force of attraction.

The Physics Community has always assumed that the “Strong Nuclear Force” is an extremely strong, short ranged, “super-force” that overcomes the Electrostatic Repulsion of the protons within the nucleus.  The previous analysis demonstrated that it is credible to have Gravity provide the force of attraction that holds the nucleus together.  The wavelengths of the Nuclear Electric Fields, established by the protons in the nucleus, are larger than the range of diameters of the nuclei for the elements listed in Table 7-1, “Periodic Table of the Elements,” and the relatively stable nuclei listed in Figure 7-2, “Table of the Nuclides,” making those forces transparent near and within the nucleus.

There are several nuclei decay reactions, which result in radioactive nuclei decaying, or reacting, until the nuclei reach stable states.  The various decay reactions are listed as follows:

1. Alpha Decay - release of a Helium nucleus from the parent nucleus



2. Beta Decay - release an electron from the parent nucleus - a neutron in the nucleus becomes a proton



3. Positron (Anti-Electron) Emission from or Electron Capture by the parent nucleus - proton in the nucleus becomes a neutron



4. Gamma Decay from the nucleus - release of a high energy photon from the nucleus, the nucleus goes from an excited energy state to a ground state or lower energy state



5. Neutron emission or capture by the parent nucleus

The Physics Community’s concept of the “Strong Nuclear Force” and the Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory concept of the “Strong Nuclear Force” are both based upon Quantum Mechanics.  Quantum Mechanics determines the energy levels for the protons and the neutrons in the nucleus.  Whether or not the “Strong Nuclear Force” overcomes the Electrostatic Repulsion Force of the protons by being a much stronger force or because the Electrostatic Repulsion Force becomes invisible at nuclear diameters has no bearing on the stability curve defined by Figure 7-2, “Table of the Nuclides,” nor does it have any bearing on the various nuclear reactions that take place for the nucleus to move to more stable states.  The nuclear stability curve and the stable isotopes of the various elements are a function of the sequential fill of protons and neutrons in the various energy levels within the nucleus based upon the solutions to the Schrodinger Wave Equation.

The question that must be answered is ... “What type of function does the field potential of the “Strong Nuclear Force” take on as it propagates omni-directionally outward from the nucleus?”  The Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory states the “Strong Nuclear Force” and Gravity are one and the same force, hence the potential function should be a function of 1/r² because the nucleus is essentially spherical.  The actual field strength of the “Strong Nuclear Force” outside the nucleus “drops off” in intensity much faster than would be expected by a 1/r² function.  An evaluation must be performed to determine if a quantized, or discrete, gravitational field in the vicinity of the nucleus could be intense enough for the effects of General Relativity to occur.  In other words, could a quantized Nuclear Gravitation Field result in “Space-Time Compression” occurring in the vicinity of the nucleus?  If General Relativistic effects do occur in the vicinity of the nucleus, then the Schrodinger Wave Equation must be modified to incorporate those General Relativistic effects.  General Relativity affects both the spatial dimensions and the time dimension.  Therefore, both the time derivative and the spatial derivative portions of the Schrodinger Wave Equation will be affected by General Relativity.  The evaluation of a General Relativistic Quantum Mechanical model of the nucleus may provide the answer to two of the “stumbling block” issues at the same time:

1. Why does the Nuclear Gravitation Field strength “drop off” faster than predicted by Newton’s Law of Gravity? and



2. Why is there a discrepancy between the “electron magic numbers” and the “proton or neutron magic numbers?”

The Schrodinger Wave Equation for the Nuclear Gravitation Field Potential is assumed to be as follows:

Time Dependent Function  =  Spatial Dependent Function  +  Potential Function

Another important factor to consider is the type of potential field represented by the “Strong Nuclear Force.”  If the “Strong Nuclear Force” propagates omni-directionally as appears to be the case in accordance with physical evidence and if the “Strong Nuclear Force” is actually a very short ranged force as indicated by the current physics paradigm, then either some sort of “ether” or “medium” attenuating the field of the “Strong Nuclear Force” must be present to cause its field intensity to drop off faster than a “1/r²” function or some other physical phenomenon is occurring.  The “1/r²” function for field or energy strength propagating omni-directionally outward from a point source or sphere as a function of distance is derived from the basic principles of geometry and physics.  For example, the Earth receives a specific amount of light energy per unit area from the Sun each second.  The Sun radiates light energy omni-directionally at a constant rate.  Consider the imaginary spherical shell at 1.0 Astronomical Unit (A.U.) from the Sun (the Earth - Sun distance).  The Sun's light energy per unit time passes through that imaginary spherical shell 1.0 A.U. in radius having a surface area equal to 4π(1.0 A.U.)².  The Earth receives a very small fraction of that energy based upon the ratio of Earth’s Sunlit side surface area to the surface area of that imaginary spherical shell.  Let’s just say the Earth was now 2.0 A.U. from the Sun.  The Sun still radiates the same light energy per unit time, however, that light energy now passes through an imaginary spherical shell 2.0 A.U. in radius with a surface area equal to 4π(2.0 A.U.)².  As one can see, the imaginary spherical shell at 2.0 A.U. from the Sun would have four times the surface area than the imaginary spherical shell at 1.0 A.U.  The Earth would only receive 1/4 the light energy at 2.0 A.U. from the Sun versus at 1.0 A.U. from the Sun based upon the ratio of its Sunlit surface area to the surface area of the second imaginary spherical shell.  For the same reason, it is reasonable and logical to expect an omni-directional force such as the “Strong Nuclear Force” to propagate outward from the nucleus with an intensity loss proportional to 1/r² where r represents the distance from the nucleus.  Consider the Sun’s relative luminosity over interstellar distances.  The luminosity of sunlight radiating omni-directionally outward over large interstellar distances will still drop off as a function of 1/r² where “r” represents the distance from the Sun is the space between the Sun and the observer is pure vacuum.  The Sun’s luminosity could, potentially, drop off much faster due to attenuation of sunlight if there is significant interstellar gas or dust present between the Sun and the observer.  Likewise, if the “Strong Nuclear Force” intensity drops off faster than 1/r², then the field must either be experiencing some type of attenuation or the “Strong Nuclear Force” is not an omni-directional outward propagating force.  The “Strong Nuclear Force” must be either a bi-polar field, such as is the case with Earth’s magnetic field, or be some type of several pole field, barring any “ether” or “medium” causing the field attenuation.  Six poles would support a cubic crystalline structure of the nucleus.  However, the nucleus appears to have a spherical structure which is consistent with the “Strong Nuclear Force” having a field that propagates omni-directionally.  The only reasonable explanations for the apparent “rapid attenuation” of the “Strong Nuclear Force” field as a function of distance from the nucleus are as follows:

1. The Nuclear Force becomes masked as one moves outward from the nucleus where the effects of the Nuclear Electric Field Potential come into play (discussed previously), or



2. The “Strong Nuclear Force” and Gravity are the same force and, therefore, Gravity is quantized to provide an intense enough gravitational field in the vicinity of the nucleus to generate significant “Space-Time Compression.”

There is no “ether” or “medium” near the nucleus of the atom to attenuate the Nuclear Force.  “Space-Time Compression” is a General Relativistic effect and only takes place in Strong Gravitational Fields.

With respect to the differences in magic numbers for electrons versus magic numbers for protons and neutrons, three other factors must also be considered:

1. The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons. These protons and neutrons interact with each other in addition to providing an attractive force to external protons and neutrons in the vicinity of the nucleus.



2. When evaluating electrons in orbit around the nucleus, the source of the Nuclear Electric Field Potential, the nucleus, appears as a point source for the electric field because its angular diameter is very small relative to the electron orbits.  When evaluating the proton interaction with the Nuclear Gravitation Field in close proximity to the nucleus, the nucleus, which is the source of the gravity field, has a much larger angular diameter relative to the proton than to the electrons.  The proton interaction with the Nuclear Gravitation Field Potential may deviate somewhat from what would be expected if the gravity field source was actually a point source.



3. The neutrons are unaffected by the Nuclear Electric Field Potential because neutrons have no electric charge.

Index and Direct Links to Other Chapters of Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory
and Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory Home Page/Table of Contents:

Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory

1. Purpose for Evaluation of the Strong Nuclear Force and the Force of Gravity



2. Executive Summary



3. The Classical Physics Evaluation of Electrostatics and Gravity
1. The Electrostatic Repulsion Force
2. Newton’s Law of Gravity - The Attractive Force of Masses
3. Comparison of Electrostatic Repulsion and Gravitational Attraction



4. Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory:  Major Stumbling Blocks to Overcome



5. New Theory Results Must Equal Old Theory Results When and Where Applicable
1. Newton’s Law of Gravity as It Applies to Large Masses and Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory
2. Kepler’s Laws, Gravity, and Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory



6. Structure of the Nucleus of the Atom



7. The Schrodinger Wave Equation and Quantum Mechanics - The Particle and Wave Characteristics of Matter



8. Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory Versus Accepted Strong Nuclear Force Overcoming Electrostatic Repulsion



9. Comparison of the Nuclear Gravitation Field to the Gravitational Field of the Sun and the Gravitational Field of a Neutron Star



10. Quantum Mechanics, General Relativity, and the Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory



11. Properties of the Strong Nuclear Force, Nuclear Properties of Bismuth, and the Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory



12. Conclusion



13. Appendix A:  References



14. Appendix B:  Background of the Author

Index and Direct Hyperlinks to the Other Web Pages on this Website:

1. Gravity Warp Drive Home Page



2. Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory  (Specific Chapter Links are Provided on this Web Page)



3. Purchase e-Books



4. History of My Research and Development of the Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory



5. “The Zeta Reticuli Incident” by Terence Dickinson



6. Supporting Information for the Nuclear Gravitation Field Theory



7. Government Scientist Goes Public



8. “Sport Model” Flying Disc Operational Specifications



9. Design and Operation of the “Sport Model” Flying Disc Anti-Matter Reactor



10. Element 115



11. Bob Lazar’s Gravity Generator



12. United States Patent Number 3,626,605:  “Method and Apparatus for Generating a Secondary Gravitational Force Field”



13. United States Patent Number 3,626,606:  “Method and Apparatus for Generating a Dynamic Force Field”



14. V. V. Roschin and S. M. Godin:  “Verification of the Searl Effect”



15. The Physics of Star Trek and Subspace Communication:  Science Fiction or Science Fact?



16. Constellation:  Reticulum



17. Reticulan Extraterrestrial Biological Entity



18. Zeta 2 Reticuli:  Home System of the Greys?



19. UFO Encounter and Time Backs Up



20. UFO Testimonies by Astronauts and Cosmonauts and UFO Comments by Presidents and Top U.S. Government Officials



21. Pushing the Limits of the Periodic Table



22. General Relativity



23. Rethinking Relativity



24. The Speed of Gravity - What the Experiments Say



25. Negative Gravity



26. The Bermuda Triangle:  Space-Time Warps



27. The Wright Brothers



28. Website Endorsements and Favorite Quotes



29. Sponsors of This Website



30. Romans Road to Eternal Life In Jesus Christ

© Copyright Kenneth F. Wright, April 10, 2000.
All rights reserved.  No portion of this document may be
reproduced in any form without written permission of the author.